ICT4LT
Module 2.2ICT4LT
Module 2.2
This module aims to provide the newcomer to multimedia CALL with the knowledge he/she needs in order to make informed decisions about multimedia hardware and software. This module consists of three main sections:
This Web page is designed to be read from the printed page. Use File / Print in your browser to produce a printed copy. After you have digested the contents of the printed copy, come back to the onscreen version to follow up the hyperlinks.
Graham Davies, Thames Valley University, UK.
The term multimedia was originally used to describe packages of learning materials that consisted of a book, a couple of audiocassettes and a videocassette. Such packages are still available, but the preferred terms to describe them seem to be multiple media or mixed media - although there is considerable disagreement as to what they should be called now that the term multimedia has acquired a different sense. Nowadays multimedia refers to computer-based materials designed to be used on a computer that can display and print text and high-quality graphics, play pre-recorded audio and video material, and create new audio and video recordings. Because of its capability of integrating the four basic skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing, multimedia is of considerable interest to the language teacher.
The first popular microcomputers that appeared in the 1970s were incapable of playing or recording sound and video, and they had very limited graphics capabilities. Language teachers were often critical about CALL because it lacked the essential ingredient of sound. From the early 1980s various tricks were employed to get computers to play back authentic sound, for example linking an audiocassette player to a computer that controlled the playback and rewind functions - but this was not very efficient as the tape stretched with use and bits of audio were cut off or appeared in the wrong place. All sorts of other Heath-Robinson devices were invented by inspired CALL enthusiasts in order to get computers to produce high-quality authentic sound. The analogue videodisc player also appeared in the early 1980s, offering the possibility of playing back high-quality sound and video and presenting thousands of photographic-quality pictures. The 12-inch videodiscs, or laserdiscs as they were sometimes called, could hold around 30 minutes of video or 54,000 still images on each side. By linking a videodisc player to a computer it was possible to produce CALL programs that today would be described as multimedia. In those days, however, the term interactive video was used.
One of the best interactive videodiscs
ever produced is MIT's A la rencontre de Philippe, which wraps up language
learning in a real-life simulation set in Paris. Philippe is a freelance journalist
from the provinces currently living in Paris with his girlfriend, but in the
first scene she dismisses him and the learner has to find an apartment for Philippe,
reconcile Philippe with the girlfriend, and help Philippe get a better job.
A plan of Paris with clickable street names and a notebook are provided, and
the learner has access to a telephone, Philippe's answering machine, classified
ads, and list of accommodation agencies. The learner can telephone to find information
about different apartments and look around them, and follow story lines in which
various characters (e.g. a plumber, an aunt, a best friend) appear. At various
points in the story, Philippe will ask the learner a question and the next segment
depends on what the player answers: e.g. if the learner clicks on "Your
boss called" a different storyline will be engaged than if the learner
says "I found you a great apartment". The material, at least the video
portions and many of the stills, was filmed in Paris. The learner can read a
description of the scene or review its essential bits before watching it, but
must watch from beginning to end before being able to access a transcript or
selective review. The transcripts include clickable glossary words and notes
on idiomatic phrases. There are also encouraging reminders of what the player
should be doing in a given situation, and review tests to check that the learner
has absorbed the essential information of a scene. A full description of this
package, including screen dumps and QuickTime video clips can be found
at:
http://web.mit.edu/fll/www/projects/Philippe.html.
See also Fuerstenberg (1993).
Another example of a simulation on videodisc is Expodisc, which casts the learner in the role of assistant to the export manager of a company wishing to sell its products in Spain and Latin America: see Davies (1991). See also Section 5.10, Module 3.2, headed Branching dialogues.
It's a great pity that simulations like these have not really caught on among CD-ROM developers - with one notable exception: the Oscar Lake series, which is described below in Section 3.4.9.
Interactive videodiscs continued to be used in industrial training well into the 1990s - and also for karaoke entertainment. Their main advantage was the high quality of the sound, video and still images that they could produce, which is absolutely essential, for example, in training engineers how to assemble a mechanical device - a typical application of the time. Their main disadvantage was the high cost of the equipment required to run them - and it was messy too, consisting of several different components linked with lots of cables.
The multimedia computer (MPC) was the next major landmark in the history of multimedia, appearing in the early 1990s. The MPC was a breakthrough in terms of its compactness, price and user-friendliness. An MPC is basically the same as a standard PC, with the following additions:
Modern MPCs are likely to be equipped with a combination CD-ROM / DVD drive as standard.
These components are discussed in more detail in Section 2 below. See also Module 1.2 for more detailed information about computer hardware.
There were earlier computers that qualified as multimedia computers, e.g. the Apple Mac and the Acorn Archimedes in the UK, but the dominant multimedia computer is the MPC. Apple computers appear to have a commanding position in the print and graphic design industries, while Acorn computers only ever gained a foothold in the UK schools sector and are now losing their market share to the MPC.
Now we have multimedia on the Web. It's a growing area but has not yet completely supplanted CD-ROM or DVD technology. Web-based multimedia may offer more in terms of presentation rather than interactivity, e.g. it is not easy to record and playback one's own voice in a Web environment, and broadband access is essential in order to avoid hiccups in delivering sound and video. Currently, the Web may be considered in some ways as an example of "disruptive technology" or "disruptive innovation" (see Christensen 1997 and Christensen & Raynor 2003), insofar as it underperforns as an interactive medium compared to CD-ROMs and DVDs, in terms of speed of access, reliability, flexibility and video quality. We are still waiting for the Web to deliver listen / respond / playback activities that compare favourably with those offered by the first AAC tape recorders in the 1960s.
See LeLoup & Ponterio (2003) "Interactive and multimedia techniques in online language lessons: a sampler". It's an interesting overview of Web-based materials, but almost everything illustrated in this article could be implemented better and with more spontaneous interaction in an offline environment. Furthermore, you need to ensure that you have installed up-to-date plug-ins, that you have broadband access and can access the sites at a quiet time of day as they may become congested at peak times.
It is evident from the number of visits to this module - the most frequently visited module at the ICT4LT website - that there is an enormous demand for information on multimedia and for INSET training courses. Have a look at the introductory materials produced by Graham Davies at: http://www.camsoftpartners.co.uk/lspinset.htm
Contents of Section 2
Certain minimum hardware specifications are desirable if you intend to run multimedia applications on a computer. Modern computers are normally equipped with all the essential components as standard, but the variety is huge and careful choices have to be made. Ideally, you should seek a supplier that offers a choice of components. See the Foreword, Module 1.2. These are typical minimum hardware specifications:
The computer must also have a recent version of the Windows operating system installed: see Section 2.1, Module 1.2.
Modern computers have much higher specifications than the above.
The following sections look at the key hardware components in more detail.
An adequate soundcard is essential for multimedia. Modern multimedia computers are fitted with soundcards as standard, so the choice of soundcard will already have been made for you.
You should familarise yourself with soundcard controls under the Windows operating system that enable you to adjust the output volume of your soundcard and the input sensitivity of your microphone.
For further information see Section 1.2.2, Module 1.2.
Speakers or headphones are essential for listening to sound recordings. When purchasing speakers it is worthwhile checking that they have their own inbuilt amplification system. The sound level of all speakers or headphones can be controlled under the Windows operating system, but good speakers have a volume control knob that also enables the user to adjust the volume manually. Headphones can be integrated with a microphone - the so-called pilot's headset that is used in language laboratories. Stereo speakers or headphones are advisable for most multimedia applications. See also Section 1.2.3, Module 1.2, which contains an illustration of the pilot's headset.
The importance of selecting the right kind of microphone is often not appreciated by ICT technicians. For good quality sound recordings the language teacher needs a high-quality microphone. A dynamic microphone (also known as a karaoke microphone) is satisfactory but provides a softer signal than a condenser microphone (also known as a powered microphone).
The level of the input signal to the microphone can be controlled under the Windows operating system. A common mistake made by newcomers to multimedia applications is a failure to set the input signal control properly so that very faint sound - or no sound at all - is emitted when playing back recordings made by the user.
It is advisable to purchase a microphone that has its own on/off switch. A microphone can be integrated with headphones - the so-called pilot's headset (see Section 2.1.3 above) that is used in language laboratories. See Section1.2.4, Module 1.2.
The term card in this context is jargon for an electronic circuit board. You will not be able to see the video card from outside the computer. All that is visible is the rear of the card is the socket into which you plug the monitor. It is important to know what kind of video card your computer is equipped with, as this affects what the monitor can display. Video cards are often referred to by sets of initials, e.g. VGA (Video Graphics Adaptor) or SVGA (Super Video Graphics Adaptor). You need not concern yourself about the meaning of these technical terms, but when you purchase software make sure that your computer has a video card that is compatible with the software you wish to use. Some software will only work, for example, on computers equipped with SVGA cards, or cards with higher specifications. See Section 1.1.1.3, Module 1.2.
CD-ROM stands for Compact Disc Read Only Memory. A CD-ROM is an optical disk onto which data has been written via a laser - a process often referred to as "burning a CD". A CD-ROM looks much the same as an audio CD but can contain text, sound, pictures and motion video.
A CD-ROM drive - which is standard on modern multimedia PCs - is essential for running multimedia applications. Floppy disks are really out of the question, except for storing pictures and very short sound or video clips; they simply do not have sufficient capacity for multimedia. A single video clip of just a few seconds would fill a 1.44MB floppy disk. CD-ROMs are the commonest storage media for multimedia applications.
Modern computers are now usually equipped with a combination drive that enables both CD-ROMs and DVDs to be played and recorded - as well as playing and creating audio CDs. See Section 2.1.7 (DVD drives) below.
A CD-ROM drive can also play standard audio CDs, so you can listen to your favourite music while you work or follow a language course supplied on audio CD - but most computer technicians keep quiet about this as they don't want their computer lab turning into a discotheque or language lab! It is possible to extract or copy tracks from an audio CD and save them to hard disk as WAV, MP3 or other audio files, which can then be played, edited or written back to another CD. This process is often referred to as "ripping a CD".
CD-ROM drives are available in a variety of different speeds, the speed being described thus: 12x (12-times), 24x (24-times), etc. This indicates the speed at which data can be pulled off the CD-ROM drive - the so-called spin-rate - 150 kilobytes per second being the notional original 1x spin-rate - long since superseded. A high spin-rate helps speed up data transfer, which is crucial when playing sound or video. A low spin-rate may cause hiccups when audio and video recordings are played. CD-ROMs work fine on stand-alone PCs but networking CD-ROMs containing large amounts of sound and video can be problematic. Although it is technically possible for a limited number of network users to access data on the same CD-ROM, the success of this depends on a number of technical factors that are too complex to discuss here, and you are therefore advised to consult your network manager - see the Appendix.
CD-ROMs can store at least 650 megabytes of data. Compared to other storage media, the CD-ROM's storage capacity is impressive. A standard high-density floppy disk (1.44MB) can store a 500-page novel. A single CD-ROM, however, can comfortably accommodate 500 medium-length novels, a 12-volume encyclopaedia, the complete works of Shakespeare, or a whole year's edition of a newspaper. It is this enormous storage capacity that makes CD-ROMs attractive. When graphics and audio and video recordings are stored in computer-readable format they take up much more space than text, and they can only be made available to consumers in reasonable quantities if they are stored on CD-ROM or DVD - see Section 2.1.7. I am currently working on an MPC containing a number of texts that I have written and an assortment of graphic, audio and video files. I selected the following files at random. The space they occupy is significant:
The above figures clearly indicate that sound and video clips are extremely demanding in terms of the space they require. The four spoken words occupy nearly 20 times the space required by the 500-word text, and the 10-second video clip requires more than 10 times the space occupied by the four spoken words. These figures are not definitive, however. They can vary considerably, depending on the way text is stored, the resolution and range of the colours in graphic reproductions, the nature of the speaker's voice in audio recordings and the number of frames per second in motion video sequences. In addition, computer programmers use data compression techniques that would reduce all the above figures significantly. Nevertheless, the hierarchy remains the same: text, graphics, audio, video.
Once written, the data on a CD-ROM can be fixed and rendered unalterable, hence the term Read Only - but modern computers are usually equipped with a CD read/write drive that enables new material to be stored on a special kind of CD-ROM: CD-R (recordable) or CD-RW (rewriteable). It is worthwhile investing in a CD-read/write drive for making backups and storing your own multimedia materials. Blank CD-Rs or CD-RWs can be bought from computer media suppliers at a relatively low cost. You can store data on CD-Rs using a read/write drive, adding to it until it is full, and then you can format the CD-ROM so that it is fixed and can be read by a standard CD-ROM drive. You can also store data on CD-RWs in the same way, but these disks can only be read by a CD read/write drive. The advantage of CD-RWs is that they can be erased and used over and over again, but now that the cost of blank CD-Rs has fallen to such a low level it is questionable how useful CD-RWs are. It is also possible to create or copy audio CDs on a CD read/write drive.
Compared to the older 12-inch laserdiscs (see Section 1.2 below), CD-ROMs produce poor quality video - although it is constantly improving. It is ironic that the new MPC technology represented a major step backwards in terms of the quality of the video it offered, and it is surprising that it has been tolerated for so long - perhaps it is a case of newcomers to CALL not knowing any better. It is only now, with the advent of DVDs that we are finally catching up with what was available in the early 1980s. More on DVDs below in Section 2.1.7.
Multimedia CD-ROMs are designed mainly for use on stand-alone MPCs. This is because the main target of CD-ROM manufacturers is the home user. This is not to say that CD-ROMs have no place in schools and other educational institutions; the main problems are technical and organisational. It was not until around 1993-94 that multimedia CD-ROMs for language learning began to appear in large numbers. David Eastment, a free-lance CALL consultant, was quick to identify the following problems:
It is difficult to see how CD-ROM could be used effectively in a conventional Computer Room. Networking CD-ROMs is fine for simple text. But sending video and audio information around the net so that it finishes up perfectly synchronised at each user's workstation is fraught with difficulties. The alternative is to set up each of the student stations as multimedia machines with their own CD-ROM drives, and provide each station with the CD-ROM discs it needs. It is problematic enough working like this from floppy disc, where at least you can copy the information on to multiple copies and keep your master safe. Working with CD means that every single workstation would have to have its own original CD-ROM disc in place, Frankly, I cannot imagine many schools going down this path. Soon, perhaps, the technical problems will be solved, or new software will emerge which will prove more "classroom-friendly". For the moment, however, CD-ROM is likely to be confined either to individuals or to small groups at a single PC. (Eastment 1994:75)
The technical situation has improved considerably in recent years, but it is still far from perfect. Networks run more quickly but CD-ROMs have become more complex. It is virtually impossible to give a straight "yes" or "no" answer to the question "Can I run this CD-ROM on a network?" The only sensible answer is "Possibly - it depends on your network manager". See the Appendix for details regarding essential network specifications if you aim to run CD-ROMs on a network.
See also Section 1.2.1, Module 1.2.
Most modern PCs come equipped with a DVD drive. DVDs (Digital Video Discs) - or, more accurately, Digital Versatile Discs - are relative newcomers to the multimedia scene. They look just the same as CD-ROMs (see Section 2.1.6 above) and audio CDs, but they are much more versatile and can store much more data. They are already in widespread use to store movies that can be played back on domestic TV sets. DVDs can also be used to store computer data, which can be read by a computer equipped with a DVD drive.
Modern multimedia computers usually come equipped with a DVD read/write drive or a combination drive that can read and write to CD-ROMs too, as well as playing and creating audio CDs.
First, an important distinction:
A DVD-player cannot normally be used to play DVD-ROM discs - but bear in mind that this technology is in the process of coverging and moving towards fully integrated systems, including DVD read/write players that can be linked to TV sets.
The main advantage of all types of DVDs is that they offer very high quality video and sound. In this respect they have finally caught up with - and surpassed - the video quality offered by older 12-inch laserdiscs - see Section 1.2. Their capacity is impressive - up to 25 times the storage capacity of a CD-ROM, which means that a DVD can comfortably hold a full-length movie. You need a fairly powerful computer, however, to play DVDs. A 500MHz 256MB RAM or better machine should cope adequately with DVD-Video discs and DVD-ROM discs.
See also Section 1.2.5, Module 1.2.
Standards for DVD-Video are still in the process of settling down. An annoying aspect of DVD-Video is that the world is carved up into six regions, also called locales, each of which has its own DVD standard. DVD-Video discs are regionally coded - look for a small standardised globe icon on the packaging with the region number superimposed on it. If a disc plays in more than one region it will have more than one number on the globe. The current six regions are:
1. USA, Canada
2. Western Europe, Japan, South Africa
3. South East Asia
4. Australia, Spanish America
5. Russia, Eastern Europe, Africa
6. China
A DVD-Video disc coded for Region 1 (USA, Canada) will not play on a DVD player sold in Region 2 (Western Europe, Japan, South Africa). When you buy a computer equipped with a DVD drive, the region will have been pre-set, but you can change it via Windows. The problem is that you cannot keep doing this: you normally only have five chances (more on some systems) to change regions! There are various reasons for this non-standardisation, one of them being that movie producers release movies at different times in different regions and in different variations. There are various ways of getting round the problem of non-standardisation - but this is beyond the scope of this introduction and you are advised to consult someone who is technically competent in this area.
DVD-Video discs have impressive advantages. You can play back a full movie with 8-channel surround-sound cinema effects. You can easily jump to a particular sequence (a scene or chapter), and DVD-Video discs often offer alternative soundtracks in different languages, subtitles (i.e. subtitles in a language other than the one in which the film was recorded), closed captions (i.e. subtitles in the same language as the one in which the film was recorded), and information about the director and cast, as well as the possibility of previewing and playing your favourite scenes over and over again.
DVD-ROM discs are not subject to the same geographical restrictions as DVD-Video discs. They only run on computers equipped with a DVD drive and cannot be played on a domestic DVD player - but, having said that, DVD technology is in the process of settling down and moving towards fully integrated systems. DVD-ROM discs combine computer programs and movies and are becoming increasingly flexible as an instructional medium, especially for Modern Foreign Languages. There is a good series of DVD-ROM discs produced by EuroTalk under the name Movie Talk. The series is aimed at advanced language learners and is based on authentic movies of between 50 minutes and 112 minutes in length - each complete movie being stored on the DVD. The complete series consists of:
Each DVD is divided into six sections:
In addition, it is possible for the learner to select his/her support language, e.g. a Spanish MT speaker learning French could select Spanish as the support language. Individual learners' names are stored, with a record of their score, the date on which they last used the DVD, and the total number of sessions in which they have used it.
Further information can be obtained from EuroTalk at http://www.eurotalk.co.uk or from Camsoft at http://www.camsoftpartners.co.uk
Screenshot: Movie Talk French: "Au coeur de la loi"
The EuroTalk DVDs are on the whole well designed and a good illustration of the kind of interaction that is possible with this new medium. The quality of the video in particular is a huge step forward from the poor quality video we have had to put up with since the advent of CD-ROMs. We can probably look forward to exciting new developments in this area.
Godwin-Jones R. (1998) "New developments in digital video", Language Learning and Technology 2, 1: 11-13: Available at: http://llt.msu.edu/vol2num1/emerging/index.html
Multimedia and Digital Commentary Online, a website maintained by Mike Bush: http://moliere.byu.edu/digital/ - contains lots of useful information and many links to other sources - although the site appears to be getting a bit dated now.
A scanner is a device that copies hard copy information (printed page, graphic image, photograph etc) into digital data, translating the information into a form a computer can store as a file. Thus it is possible to make a digitised copy of a printed page, graphic image or photograph. Simple graphic images are usually stored in a format known as GIF. Photographs are usually stored in a file format known as JPEG or JPG and they can then be printed on a colour printer, sent as an email attachment to a friend or colleague, or incorporated into a website. All the images at the ICT4LT website are stored in JPEG or GIF format. See Section 2.2.3.1, headed Image editing software.
Scanners do not distinguish text from graphic images and photographs, so you cannot use a word-processor to edit directly a printed page that has been scanned. To edit text read by an optical scanner, you need optical character recognition (OCR ) software to translate the image into 'real text', i.e. a format that can be read by a word-processor. Most optical scanners today come bundled with OCR software: see Section 2.2.3.2 below.
The most popular type of scanner is known as a flatbed scanner. This looks a bit like a photocopier and works in a similar way. You lay the picture or page containing the text to be scanned on a glass plate, start the scanning software and watch the digitised image appear on screen. The image can then be saved as a file on your hard disk. Text saved as an image can then be converted into "real text" with the aid of OCR software. OCR software does not work 100%, as broken characters and faded characters are liable to be misread, but surprisingly good results can be achieved - and it certainly beats typing!
Some scanners are small hand-held devices that you slide across the paper containing the text or image to be copied. Hand-held scanners are fine for small pictures and photos, but they are difficult to use if you need to scan an entire page of text or larger images.
Module 2.5, Introduction to CALL authoring programs, assumes that you have a basic knowledge of the following software if you intend to create multimedia applications.
Software that you require for using multimedia applications is will probably be supplied with your multimedia computer. For example, the Windows Media Player should automatically spring into action when a computer program needs to play an audio or video clip. A media player is in effect a "virtual" playback machine, complete with Play, Stop, Pause, Fast Forward, Fast Reverse and Volume Control buttons. The Windows Media Player also acts as a plug-in when an audio or video clip is downloaded from the World Wide Web. See Microsoft's website for further information: http://www.microsoft.com/windows/windowsmedia. Other examples of media players include:
Some of the above packages are available as free downloads or in demo versions.
CODEC is short for COmpressor / DECompressor or COder / DECoder. A CODEC is software that is used to compress or decompress a digital audio or video file. CODECs are additional pieces of software that operate in conjunction with different media players, and certain types of audio and video recordings will only play back if the relevant CODEC is running in conjunction with the media player that you are using.
A CODEC can consists of two components, an encoder and a decoder. The encoder compresses the file during creation, and the decoder decompresses the file when it is played back. Some CODECs include both components, while other CODECs include only one. CODECs are used because a compressed file takes up less storage space on your computer or on the Web.
When you play an audio or video file in your media player it will use a CODEC to decompress the file. Remember that the extension WAV, MP3, AVI, WMA, WMV or MPEG is not a guarantee that an audio or video file can be played in your media player, as the file may have been compressed using a CODEC that is different from those already installed on your computer. For example, if you install a DVD playback program on your computer, the program will probably install a CODEC that only includes only an MPEG-2 decoder, which allows you to play the DVD on your computer.
If you have a problem playing an audio or video file in your media player it is likely that the CODEC required to play it is not installed on your computer. Sometimes when you are trying to play an audio or video file an "Unexpected File Format" message or a similar error message pops up. To correct the problem you need to download and install the correct CODEC. This may be a job for your technician! See:
Digital language labs incorporate a media player/recorder, but go one step further insofar as they offer, in digital format, the same kind of audio-interactive facilities found in a traditional language lab, including teacher monitoring facilities and video playback. See:
See the following PDF document at the Languages ICT website:
Davies G., Bangs P., Frisby R. & Walton E. (2005) Setting up effective digital language laboratories and multimedia ICT suites for Modern Foreign Languages, London: CILT: http://www.languages-ict.org.uk/managing/digital_language_labs.pdf
If your computer is equipped with a DVD drive it will need software that enables DVDs to be played, e.g.
Intervideo WinDVD: http://www.intervideo.com
It is likely that your computer will have this software pre-installed if you have purchased a computer with a DVD drive.
A useful addition to standard DVD software is the InterActual Player - formerly known as PCFriendly: I am grateful to "Sami", DVD Applications & Support Engineer, InterActual Technologies Inc. (http://www.interactual.com) for the following additional useful information:
PCFriendly will not play DVD discs by itself. It calls on your installed DVD player/decoder to display the video but in addition allows the movie studios to add Internet-style content to the DVD disc - look for the PCFriendly logo on the DVD disc packaging, which indicates that the disc has been enhanced with PCFriendly features. For example, the studios can add simple ROM features to the movie such as wallpaper, screen savers, games, Web-style pages with cast and crew bios, and more or less anything else you might see on the Web. The studios can also add much more advanced features such as video in a window next to the storyboards and original script. You can go online and chat with other fans of the same movie in a virtual theatre where the video is synchronised with the other people's views. Then the studios can (and have) bring in the actors, directors, special effects artists - and more - and allow you to chat with them for the entire length of the movie. There are many more ways in which studios can enhance the movie when you use PCFriendly on your computer. It should be noted that all PCFriendly titles are standard DVD movies and will play without PCFriendly. PCFriendly is only required to view the ROM contents of the disc and to enjoy the online events. See: http://player.interactual.com
If you intend to develop multimedia applications yourself, you will need additional editing software to create and edit images, audio files and sound files - collectively known as assets. A selection of packages for creating and editing images, sound and video is described below.
2.2.3.1 Image editing software
When using the above packages, it is important that you are aware of the different formats in which images can be stored on a computer. Most image editing packages allow you to save images in different formats and to convert from one format to another. The commonest formats are:
See the website of the Technical Advisory Service for Images (TASI): http://www.tasi.ac.uk
2.2.3.2 Scanning and OCR software
Most image editing packages also include software for acquiring images from scanners: see Section 2.1.8 above. When you buy a flatbed scanner it is normally supplied with software for scanning images from photographs or other printed media, and with optical character recognition (OCR) software for scanning in texts and converting them into a format that can be read with a word-processor. Useful scanning, photo-imaging and OCR software - including OCR software that recognises languages other than English - can be found at:
2.2.3.3 Sound recording and editing software
Making and editing sound recordings is not as difficult as many language teachers imagine. New software tools make the job a lot easier:
It's easy to make recordings directly onto the hard disk of your computer, but I prefer to make them first on a portable recorder (analogue or digital) and then upload them to the computer using a connection lead. See the range of audio recording devices offered by Olympus and iRiver:
When using the above editing packages, it is important that you are aware of the different formats in which sound can be stored on a computer. Most sound editing packages allow you to save images in different formats and to convert from one format to another. The commonest formats are:
See the following documents at the
website of the Association of University Language Centres:
These pages at the WikiHow website are also useful sources of information:
See also Video editing software (below). Some video file formats can be used for both audio and video.
2.2.3.4 Video editing software
If you have made video recordings using a camcorder these can be uploaded to your computer by means of a cable connecting your camcorder to the firewire port (firewire socket) on your computer. You upload what you have recorded and then edit it using software such as Movie Maker or one of the other video editing packages listed below.
A firewire is in essence a device that allows you to transfer video recordings very quickly from your camcorder to your computer. Many modern computers already have a firewire port built in. If your computer does not have a firewire port then you have to buy a firewire card and slot it in - and here you need a bit of technical knowledge. Most modern computers systems that are designed for audio and video applications have firewire ports built into them. If you are not sure that you have a firewire port, have a look at the sockets for connecting to external devices on your computer. A firewire port is smaller than a USB port, but it will probably be located near the USB port(s). See images below:
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Firewire
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Firewire port (left) |
Firewire
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USB cable
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You can transfer video recordings from your camcorder to your computer via a USB cable and the standard USB socket on your computer but it will take an eternity.
There is a good range of products offered by Hauppauge for the efficient digitisation of video materials from a variety of sources http://www.hauppauge.com
I use a small Sony Handycam digital camcorder for making video recordings, which I upload to my computer and edit using one of the following video editing packages
Sites such as Digital Video for Teachers offer training and free resources for teachers in video capture and editing: http://www.digitalvideoforteachers.co.uk. See also Bailey & Dugard (2007).
Have a look at the selection of camcorders available from Tag Learning: http://www.taglearning.com
Many learning centres use satellite radio and TV programmes as a matter of course. Access to vast numbers of Free to Air (FTA) foreign language channels on satellite TV is easy and relatively cheap, though care has to be taken as to their use within the classroom. Once the material has been downloaded (either centrally onto videocassette, or directly into high-specification computers), the resulting videos will need to be edited in the same way as any others, with tools such as those described above - but please check whether it is legal to do this: see our General guidelines on copyright. It is important that you are aware of the different formats in which video can be stored on a computer. Most video editing packages allow you to save images in different formats and to convert from one format to another. The commonest formats are:
Plug-ins: You will need a plug-in to view streaming audio or video. See Section 6, Module 1.5, headed Do you need plug-ins? See also Section 2.2.1 above, headed Media players and digital language labs. A plug-in is an extra piece of software that a Web browser needs to run certain elements of a Web page, e.g. animated sequences and audio or video clips. You will find that when you click on an icon that signifies the availability of streaming audio or video material, your browser will link with a plug-in. If the plug-in is not already installed on your computer then you will be able to download it free of charge. Web pages incorporating multimedia often need plug-ins such as Flash Player, Shockwave Player or RealPlayer. Plug-ins are usually quick and easy to install, normally free of charge and open up a wealth of new material. Sites that require a plug-in usually provide a link to a site from which the essential plug-in can be downloaded. These are the sites from which Flash Player, Shockwave and RealPlayer can be downloaded:
Saving streaming audio and video clips for use offline
It is possible to save streaming audio or streaming video clips to your hard disk so that they can be used offline, but you may need special software to do it. The reason for this is that sites that offer streaming audio or streaming video normally don't want you to download it for copyright reasons - and they may specify this in their terms of use. There are several software tools available that enable you to capture streaming audio and streaming video media. See:
Podcasting is an interesting recent development. A podcast is a broadcast audio file, most commonly in MP3 or MPG format, made available via the Internet in a way that allows the broadcast to be downloaded automatically for listening at the user's convenience. Podcasts incorporating video are known as vodcasts. Many broadcasting stations now offer podcasts and vodcasts, e.g. the BBC: http://www.bbc.co.uk
The term podcast takes its name from a combination of iPod (Apple's portable digital media player) and broadcasting, but podcasts and vodcasts do not necessarily require the use of an iPod or similar device. Podcasts can simply be downloaded to a computer and played using a standard media player program. . See Section 3.5.2, Module 2.3 for further information on podcasting.
Contents of Section 3
Multimedia clearly offers many exciting opportunities for language learning. The possibility of combining text, images, sound and video in a variety of activities was a major step forward in CALL, but many of the opportunities that this offers have simply not been seized. Most multimedia applications tend to be strong on presentation and weak in terms of pedagogy and interaction. It often appears that the new generation of software developers, i.e. from the late 1980s onwards, have overlooked or deliberately ignored everything that was learned by the previous generation.
CALL was highly regarded in its early days because of its ability to individualise learning. Language labs were welcomed for similar reasons. But language labs fell out of favour because of the "battery chicken syndrome" - i.e. rows and rows of students all doing more or less the same thing. The same began to happen with computer labs. The mindless drills that were offered in language labs were reincarnated in computer labs in a different form: see Davies (1997:28-29). Many multimedia applications are following the same downward path; in spite of all the bells and whistles they are no more than a series of drills in glorious technicolor and stereophonic sound. Early CALL was undoubtedly primitive. The first microcomputers offered only white text on a black screen, and to a large extent early CALL was based on a behaviouristic, programmed-learning approach - which has now been largely discredited: see Section 3.2 above. Nevertheless, a good deal was learned in the early days about discrete error analysis, the importance of intrinsic feedback as opposed to extrinsic feedback, branching, the concept of a default route through a program, etc. And there were some good simulations, e.g Granville, and programs that made imaginative use of simple graphics, e.g. Quelle Tête and Kopfjäger - all of which were developed in the mid-1980s by Barry Jones. Many of the lessons that were learned are described in Laurillard (1993). Davies (1997:38) sums up this approach, citing Laurillard (1993):
The modern approach stresses the importance of guidance rather than control, offering the student a default route through the program as an alternative to browsing, and building in intrinsic rather than extrinsic feedback, so that the learner has a chance to identify his/her own mistakes.
See Section 8, Module 2.5, How to factor feedback into your authoring, on the distinction between intrinsic feedback and extrinsic feedback.
Warschauer (1996) defines three phases of CALL:
See also Section 3, Module 1.4, headed Warschauer (1996).
In his consideration of the pros and cons of multimedia, Warchauer uses the term hypermedia as a subset of multimedia in the sense that:
"...multimedia resources are all linked together and [...] learners can navigate their own path simply by pointing and clicking a mouse." (Warschauer 1996)
Nowadays, it can be assumed that the majority of multimedia applications embrace the functions that Warschauer ascribes to hypermedia. Warschauer continues:
"First of all, a more authentic learning environment is created, since listening is combined with seeing, just like in the real world. Secondly, skills are easily integrated, since the variety of media make it natural to combine reading, writing, speaking and listening in a single activity. Third, students have great control over their learning, since they can not only go at their own pace but even on their own individual path, going forward and backwards to different parts of the program, honing in on particular aspects and skipping other aspects altogether. Finally, a major advantage of hypermedia is that it facilitates a principle focus on the content, without sacrificing a secondary focus on language form or learning strategies. For example, while the main lesson is in the foreground, students can have access to a variety of background links which will allow them rapid access to grammatical explanations or exercises, vocabulary glosses, pronunciation information, or questions or prompts which encourage them to adopt an appropriate learning strategy." (Warschauer 1996)
According to Warschauer, one of the reasons why multimedia has failed to make a major impact is the lack of good quality programs, claiming that "computer programs are not yet intelligent enough to be truly interactive". This is true, although I would put it thus: the main reason why multimedia applications have not been adopted widely by language teachers is that the creators of multimedia applications have been singularly lacking in imagination. For example, I have yet to see a CD-ROM containing a good quality simulation along the lines of A la rencontre de Philippe or Expodisc - see Section 1.2 - Oscar Lake being a notable exception. Language teachers certainly need more programs like these. Warschauer describes one such program, Dustin, as follows:
"The program is a simulation of a student arriving at a U.S. airport. The student must go through customs, find transportation to the city, and check in at a hotel. The language learner using the program assumes the role of the arriving student by interacting with simulated people who appear in video clips and responding to what they say by typing in responses. If the responses are correct, the student is sent off to do other things, such as meeting a roommate. If the responses are incorrect, the program takes remedial action by showing examples or breaking down the task into smaller parts. At any time the student can control the situation by asking what to do, asking what to say, asking to hear again what was just said, requesting for a translation, or controlling the level of difficulty of the lesson." (Warschauer 1996)
Another feature of multimedia applications is that they tend to be short on feedback, offering the learner little help in identifying his/her mistakes. All too often a wrong response is accompanied by a "boing" and a correct response is accompanied by the sound of applause or fanfare - very irritating after the first few minutes. I worked my my through the first few lessons of a CD-ROM for beginners in Japanese which adopted this approach. I eventually got a good score, but a couple of days later I could not remember a single word of Japanese. There is a danger, however, of relying too much on the computer's ability to process the learner's input:
"Where the student is generally working alone without the teacher, the computer has to reliably give the student the right kind of guidance and advice every time the program is used; there is no second wave of feedback that can come with a teacher's presence to act as backup. [...] The success, therefore of the computer in the tutorial role, hinges on how reliably the program manages the student's learning and on how timely, accurate and appropriate is the feedback, help and advice given." (Levy 1998:90)
Levy certainly has a point, and I have also been very critical of ICALL-based programs that rely heavily on input analysis (Davies 1997:35-39). The view I expressed at the time was that many designers of programs of this type were more interested in control rather than guidance, but see the following sections, which present a more positive point of view:
Levy has his doubts about simulations too:
"As far as simulations are concerned, the potential threat of isolation and mere vicarious experience need to be considered. Virtual worlds, for example, might isolate or distance the individual from the real world. Such experiences, whilst having the potential to simulate real communicative situation, nevertheless remain illusory." (Levy 1998:90)
Here I think that Levy is slightly off the track. Most people are well aware of the difference between simulations and reality; the surrealistic city in the Oscar Lake series, is clearly unreal - "surrealistic" might be a better word - and so are most of the characters. Simulations certainly have an important role to play in certain kinds of training, e.g. learning how to fly a Boeing 747, but it is, of course, difficult to set up a simulation for developing communicative competence in a foreign language. It's difficult enough to set up live role-plays in the language classroom. As a language learner, I can only remember one role-play that I practised in the classroom actually going according to plan in reality. I was ordering food and drink in a restaurant in Hungary, and the waiter responded exactly as I anticipated. I wish I had had a tape-recorder with me at the time. Most of the time, however, I got totally unexpected and unintelligible responses.
Multimedia is a new phenomenon. Technology is racing ahead of pedagogy and, unfortunately, often driving the pedagogy. Above all, there is a need for further research into how language students learn. We still know relatively little about the learning process, but what little we know is often disregarded by multimedia developers: see Chapelle (1997 & 1998) and Garrett (1998). As Chapelle puts it:
"Why is there such a dissonance between even the most technically sophisticated work in CALL and SLA research?" (Chapelle 1997:3)
A basic learning principle is that the learner makes progress by mentally processing the language he/she is learning and not by blindly pointing and clicking. Too many multimedia programs rely on what may be called the "point-and-click-let's-move-on-quick" approach. It is all too easy to be deceived by flashy presentations. I suppose it's symptomatic of the video age - let it all wash over the learner's head and if you're lucky something might eventually stick. When examining a new multimedia package it may be useful to ask yourself the following questions:
See also our CALL Software Evaluation Form, which has been updated (August 2005) and is now available as a downloadable Word document. The document includes most of the above questions and also incorporates a Website / Web Page Evaluation Form. Click here: Evaluation Forms.
What other questions would you ask yourself? Think of a few! Have a look at Module 3.2, which is concerned with multimedia software design issues.
A large number of CD-ROMs are on the market, aimed at a wide variety of language learners at all ages. The following is just a small representative selection. See also:
Early CD-ROMs contained just text, e.g. the complete works of Shakespeare, the bible, a year's edition of a newspaper, a dictionary, or a 20-volume encyclopaedia. There are still many CD-ROMs of this type around.
When PCs equipped with soundcards became more widely available, dictionaries and encyclopaedias were enhanced with sound, pictures and video, early examples being the Longman Interactive English Dictionary and Microsoft's Encarta. There are clearly advantages for the language learner in being able to play a sound recording of a dictionary entry, and a picture often helps clarify meaning. Most suppliers' catalogues include a range of monolingual and bilingual/multilingual dictionaries, and monolingual encyclopaedias on CD-ROM. These are worth considering as reference tools.
There are few CD-ROM dictionaries, however, that are as comprehensive as the major reference works in book format. When I visited a translation agency a few years ago, I was a bit surprised to see most of the translators consulting standard reference works on their desks - especially as they were all using sophisticated word-processing software. When I asked one translator if she ever used an electronic dictionary, she said she occasionally used one to check a meaning but generally found such dictionaries unreliable and the entries too brief - and anyway she preferred to look away from the screen regularly to give her eyes a rest. She was, however, using a translation memory package: see Section 3, Module 3.5, headed Machine Translation.
All-in-One Language Fun and Kidspeak are typical examples of CD-ROMs that make use of just two media: cartoon pictures and sound. Both CD-ROMs are designed for young learners.
There is no text on screen in All-in-One Language Fun, because some members of its target audience (ages 3-12) will not have learned to read, and no input is required at the keyboard. All-in-One Language Fun concentrates entirely on listening skills using multimedia versions of familiar games: e.g. Jigsaw Puzzles, Memory Teasers, Simon Says, Bingo, Telling the Time, Dress the Child, etc. Five languages are included on one CD-ROM: French, German, Spanish, Japanese and English. Unlike many programs of this type that I have criticised for falling into the "point-and-click-let's-move-on-quick" category, this one does a good job. It is difficult to carry out many of the tasks without understanding the language that is presented. Although this CD-ROM is aimed at young learners, many adults might benefit from using it too. An adult learner told me that for the first time in her life she managed to sort out the difference between dative and accusative after prepositions of location or movement towards a location in German - there's a useful little activity that involves sending a mouse to different locations in a variety of rooms in a house.
Screenshot: All-in-One Language Fun, Selection of Games
Kidspeak is aimed at slightly older learners (6-plus) and there is a limited amount of text on screen but, like All-in-One Language Fun, the program makes use mainly of cartoon pictures and sound. The emphasis in Kidspeak is, again, on understanding language. Kidspeak presents language through a variety of games. Each topic offers four entertaining games and a song. Each game offers three levels of difficulty to keep the child challenged. There are also printable activities. Language skills include the alphabet and word recognition, correct pronunciation, understanding simple sentences, using plural and singular, telling the time, greetings, colours, clothing, weather, travel, food - over 700 words per language. Portuguese, French, Spanish, German, Hebrew, Chinese, Japanese, Indonesian, Italian and Korean are all included on the two CD-ROMs.
Screenshot: Kidspeak, Spanish
A technique that is often used in packages for young children is the clickable image. One of the first programs of this type was Just Grandma and Me in Brøderbund's Living Books series, first published in 1993. As well as making use of clickable text in a choice of three languages (English, Spanish and Japanese), the learner can click on images on screen, which activate amusing animated cartoons accompanied by spoken words and sound effects.
Screenshot: Just Grandma and Me, English
The Tortoise and the Hare is one of the most popular Living Books packages. Aesop's fable of the race between the tortoise and the hare is presented here in a new light. Simon, the storytelling bird, acts as the narrator. The full text of the story appears on screen (in English or Spanish) and is first read out loud by a native speaker. The learner can click on any word in the text in order to hear it pronounced, but clicking on items in the pictures that illustrate the story brings a rich variety of surprises: chimney pots that wish one another "Good morning" or "Buenos dias", the politically correct tortoise that insists on newspapers being recycled, the rapping beaver - and many others.
Screenshot: The Tortoise and the Hare, Spanish
The New Kid on the Block is another Living Book, but with a different approach. Instead of dealing with just one story, this CD-ROM contains a series of amusing poems in English for young children, all of which have been written by Jack Prelutsky. The aim is to bring the poems to life. The learner can listen to the whole text of each poem and can then click on any word. A native speaker (English) reads the individual word out loud and the meaning of the word is acted out in a series of animated cartoons. The animations are both memorable and humorous, proving that poetry can be fun.
Screenshot: The New Kid on the Block
There is a wide choice of CD-ROMs for children beginning a language at secondary school level. The following two CD-ROMs are typical examples. Unfortunately, the choice narrows as the learner reaches higher levels.
See Ashcombe School's Modern Foreign Languages/ICT Resources page: http://www.ashcombe.surrey.sch.uk/Curriculum/modlang
En Route: This CD-ROM is divided into ten comprehensive sections covering a wide range of everyday topics. Each section deals with a different topic and contains a variety of exercises. The package enables the user to record his/her own voice and compare it with a French native speaker. Students may also measure their progress via continuous assessment. There are hundreds of photographs, illustrations, video and audio clips, and online grammar help. The schools edition also contains a scrapbook which, used in conjunction with the CD-ROM, allows the learner to view, select and save video footage, images, audio material and text into their own files. This CD-ROM corresponds to Key Stage 3 of the National Curriculum.
Screenshot: En Route
Unterwegs: This CD-ROM is divided into ten comprehensive sections covering a wide range of everyday topics. Each section deals with a different topic and contains exercises designed to teach German in a natural, structured and progressive way. The fully interactive program enables the student to record, listen and compare his/her own speech and pronunciation with the German spoken on the disc. Students may also measure their progress via continuous assessment. This colourful package, with hundreds of photographs, illustrations, video footage and audio clips, even includes online grammatical help. The schools edition also contains a scrapbook which, used in conjunction with the CD-ROM, allows students to view, select and save video footage, images, audio material and text into their own files. This CD-ROM corresponds to Key Stage 3 of the National Curriculum.
Screenshot: Unterwegs
There is a dearth of good CD-ROMs for the advanced learner, but the author has identified three examples, described below, which offer three very different approaches.
LINC is a package for advanced learners, aged around 16+. Versions in French, German, Spanish, English and Dutch are already available, and other language versions are planned. Contents: 10 video topics with transcript and explanation of cultural issues; hundreds of exercises on reading, writing, listening, speaking, vocabulary, and grammar with feedback and pedagogical help screens. Tools: Integrated on-screen video, audio and text; reference grammar; mini-dictionary; WWW-access for further exploration; email facility for contact with other learners.
Screenshot: LINC, German
La neve nel bicchiere is a CD-ROM designed for use by learners of Italian at higher-intermediate/advanced level. It was created between 1992 and 1997 by the Hypermedia Italian Team (HIT) at Coventry University with the help of students of Italian and has as its text base Nerino Rossi’s novel La neve nel bicchiere. The material contained on the CD-ROM is also suitable for teaching Italian to mother-tongue students. The novel La neve nel bicchiere and the CD-ROM describe the historical and social conditions of an Italian family over a period of seventy years (1880-1950). The material on the CD-ROM is particularly suitable for the teaching of a variety of national and regional topics, such as: Anarchism and Socialism, State and Church, Women in Italy, Fascism, From Peasants to Bourgeoise, Italy at War (Lybian War, First World War, Second World War). Information on integrating the CD-ROM into the Italian curriculum is also included in a printable text file.
Screenshot: La neve nel bicchiere
European Business Environment, Germany: A self-study lecture course in German with activities and tasks. The CD-ROM consists of three parts:
Screenshot: European Business Environment, Germany
Grammar went out of fashion some years ago, but now it is making a comeback. Multimedia offers ways of making grammar more interesting and entertaining. The following two CD-ROMS are good examples.
The Grammar ROM: Grammar for learners of English as a Foreign Language. This is one of the few CD-ROMs I have seen that concentrate on English grammar. All the key points of English grammar are covered: Verbs, Nouns and Articles, Modals, Conditionals The Passive, Adjectives and Adverbs, Questions, Prepositions, Clauses, Links, Reported Speech, Phrasal Verbs, Gerund and Infinitive. The learner can choose between English, French, German, Spanish and Italian as the language of on-screen instructions and spoken instructions. There is an online glossary and grammar reference section, accompanied by 300 exercises: e.g. multiple-choice and gap-filling exercises, comprehension exercises relating to writte text and audio and video recordings, re-ordering of sentences, sequencing of activities. The CD-ROM includes lively cartoon drawings, authentic sound recordings, and motion video sequences taken from videos written by Ingrid Freebairn and Brian Abbs: A Family Affair, Two Days in Summer, Face the Music.
Screenshot: The Grammar ROM
French Grammar Studio: This CD-ROM has been designed to help students prepare for the French GCSE examination and as a stand-a